Cults: A Destructive Alternative Setting

First published November 15, 2019

Abstract

This paper examines how to identify a group as a “cult” based on peer-reviewed criteria that identify it as harmful. These are then applied to a religious group known as “Jehovah’s Witnesses” (JW) and this paper describes what the negative repercussions are for members. The research into cults is rather extensive. However, more research is beginning to demonstrate that those same characteristics that are typically applied to smaller, more “extreme” groups apply equally to bigger religions.

Keywords: cult, BITE model, control, social isolation, alternative setting.

What is a cult?

Cults are a destructive alternative setting. Alternative settings are defined by Jennifer Rudkin in her book Community Psychology as “any instance in which two or more people come together in new relationships over a sustained period of time in order to achieve certain goals.” (Rudkin, J. 2003, pg. 49.) To truly be an alternative setting, it has to propose new and untried ways of addressing social problems, and it has to be a radical new approach to what the established “solution” is. Alternative settings are not necessarily bad, but cults hijack the purpose of an alternative setting to control groups of people.

On November 18, 1978, 918 members of the People’s Temple Agricultural Project either committed suicide or were killed at the order of their leader, Jim Jones, when the end of his cult was imminent. (Moore, 2011. pp 42-58.) This is often cited as a prime example of what harm a cult can accomplish.

The term “cult” refers to any group of people with a particular religious or philosophical set of beliefs and identity. We tend to think of cults strictly in the sense of groups where their beliefs are so far out of the “norm” of society that they are viewed suspiciously and existing on the fringes of acceptable behavior.(Quinton, 2015, pp. 269–270.) By establishing a rubric following clearly defined criteria, we can gauge to what degree religions or social groups might classify as cults.

In this paper I will be looking at the destructive impact that cults have on communities, viewed through the lens of my personal experience of the religion, Jehovah’s Witnesses. I began studying what qualities identify a group as a cult in October of 2017 when I began to see these traits in the religion that I grew up in. This is an important topic as it relates to community psychology because of a common trait of this and some other religions: they tend to isolate their members from the rest of society, sometimes physically but almost always at least mentally. For example, rather than figuring out how we can come together as communities, I was instructed to “be no part of the world” and to “bunker down” and wait for the impending apocalypse. I was specifically taught that humans cannot fix the problems of the world, and I should wait for God to do so by bringing about Armageddon. This is directly at odds with the very fundamentals of community psychology whereby social problems can be solved or alleviated by looking at the strengths of communities and how they can work together. (Kloos, BV., Hill, J., Thomas, E., Wandersman, A., Elias, M., & Dalton, J. 2012. p. 12-13)

I will examine four areas of life for members of this group: indoctrination, community separation and social isolation, recruitment tactics, and reintegration into society. I will also examine how to identify any group purporting to be an alternative setting as a cult. To begin, I will define what a cult is, and then establish a set of criteria that acts as a rubric when deciding if a group is a cult.

The BITE Model

Steven Hassan, a leader in the field of cult psychology, defines four areas that cults control their members in what he calls “The BITE Model.” The BITE Model is an anagram of the four areas of life over which cults control their members: Behavioral, Informational, Thought, and Emotional Control. Hassan established these criteria while he was studying the research and theory of brainwashing tactics and cognitive dissonance. Rather than view these criteria as binary, he found it helpful to think of them more as a gradient. He claims that some cults exert less influence in certain areas, whereas other cults go to extremes when controlling their members. Hassan asserts that cults use a variety of methods to convey their doctrine to their members. Studies have proven that indoctrination tactics do work to effectively “brainwash” people into believing even the most absurd beliefs. (Hassan, S. 2015, pp. 113-124.)

Let’s begin first by taking a deeper look at Hassan’s BITE model. Behavioral control is, as the name suggests, controlling the actions of the individual members. Members are instructed how to dress, how to style their hair, how they are allowed to spend leisure time, what kinds of activities they can engage in. A lot of cults even require a percentage of the monthly income of their members be donated to the organization. It functions much like training an animal, utilizing rewards and punishments to get members to behave a certain way. (Hassan, S. 2015, pg. 115-116.)

Informational control seeks to restrict what information about the world a member receives. The cult relies on the generation and distribution of propaganda material, telling their members to seek information exclusively from them. The extent to which a member’s interaction with any non-member is monitored and kept to a minimum. In particular, any information that is critical of the organization is disallowed. (Hassan, S. 2015, pg 116-117.)

Thought control seeks to influence the innermost thoughts of a person. The cult works to instill “black and white” thinking into its members, placing the cult on the side of good and everyone else on the side of evil. It develops its own vocabulary that non-members wouldn’t be able to understand. It teaches “thought-stopping” techniques to prevent critical analysis of the concepts. It teaches members to reject rational analysis, critical thinking, and doubt. (Hassan, S. 2015, pp. 117-119.) As an example of a thought-stopping technique, I was taught that even thinking “Oh that woman is pretty” is a slippery slope that leads you to the “sin” of adultery. and to instantly reject that way of thinking.

Emotional control includes installing irrational fears of questioning or leaving the group. It labels unwanted emotions as “evil,” and teaches emotion-stopping techniques to prevent anger. It uses feelings of guilt, shame, and unworthiness to maintain control over the individual. If a member ever thinks of leaving, the threat of shunning is used to keep them under control. (Hassan, S. 2015, pp. 121-123)

Now that we have established a set of criteria to identify a cult, we can use it to “grade” any organization and analyze to what extent they would qualify as a cult. The religion that I grew up in, Jehovah’s Witnesses, definitely checks the boxes. A lot of other major religions have been

demonstrated to be cults, such as The Church of the Latter Day Saints and Scientology to name a few.^[1]

Why is this important in regards to community psychology? Alternative settings can and have been positive places where people have tested out various solutions to social problems. For example, Fairweather’s Lodge Societies were a near perfect solution to how to house and reintegrate into society those who have a diagnosed mental health condition. (Rudkin, J. 2003. pg. 44.)

However, cults are an alternative setting that serves to separate its members from society. They would rather their members “bury their heads in the sand” about the world around them and actively work against solving social problems because “God will take care of it all some day.” They proclaim the futility of human efforts to fix the world’s problems. (Friedson, Meredith. 2015, pp. 693–712.)

The Indoctrination Process

Cults often prey on people who are down on their luck, disadvantaged, or otherwise rejected by society. They are under a lot of stress, dissatisfied with life, unassertive, gullible, dependent, or feel a strong desire to belong to a group. (Quinton, Stephanie. 2015, pp. 269–270.) I would argue that the process that might start a person down the path that ends with joining a cult begins with his or her failure to apply the principles of community psychology to their personal problems.

Cult leaders utilize various techniques to introduce members to the group. First, they utilize “love-bombing”, a technique to shower a potential member with attention and affection. Second, they try to isolate them from friends or family that might try to convince them to not join the cult. They do this by keeping them busy with learning new rituals or participating in new activities. Next, they teach thought- and emotion-blocking techniques that help curb criticism of the cult and promote high degrees of conformity. The final step is requiring the new recruit to make some big gesture as a sign of devotion to the cult. (Quinton, Stephanie. 2015, pp. 269–270.)

The process that cults use to initiate new members takes advantage of the principles of community psychology and alternative settings. When a community fails an individual, they will go looking for another setting to satisfy their needs. When someone has become disillusioned with life or are under a lot of stress, they begin to seek out other ways to solve problems. Cults quite often offer both an answer as to why the world seems to be so screwed up and the solution for all problems. (Quinton. pp. 269–270.) I was taught as one of Jehovah’s Witnesses that the world is descending further and further into “sin,” and the only true solution for social problems is for God to step in and destroy the world. He will then usher in paradise on earth.

The second step that cult leaders use to gain new recruits is where we find the biggest threat to the ideals of community psychology: isolating members from existing social groups. Rather than have their friends and family rally around them during tough times, cult recruiters take advantage of the basic human desire for support and community and “love bomb” them into joining their cause. They promise them that God will fix their problems. (Quinton. pp. 269–270.)

“By their very nature, cults cannot afford to have individuality or independently functioning families. To this end, individual and family boundaries break down as a result of several factors. These factors include intensive resocialization into the new, deviant beliefs and behaviors; the demonization of people’s precult lives; intense punishment and shaming regimes; restrictions on exogenous social contacts; heavy financial and time commitments; and constant demands to value group commitments over family considerations.” (Whitsett, Doni, and Stephen Kent. 2003, pp. 491–502.) Cults actively work to tear down an individual’s support system and make them entirely reliant on the cult.

“No Part of the World” – Community Separation and Social Isolation

After the initial “prospective member” phase, newly “baptized” members of the religion soon find themselves in a microcosm of their former community. In addition to this, it is quite common for members to face further social isolation. It is not enough to simply become a full-fledged member of the organization; you also have to demonstrate by “works” that you are a sufficiently “good enough” Jehovah’s Witness to be allowed participation in social gatherings. New members go through a brief period of social isolation where the only contact they have with other people is either through necessary circumstances (such as work or school) or cult established settings where they can be closely monitored.

Even after a member has been sufficiently vetted and accepted into the inner group of the religion, cults drive further fear of isolation into their members. For example, Jehovah’s Witnesses used a tool on me called “disfellowshipping,” a severe form of excommunication. Meredith Friedson discusses in further detail the effects that this ever-present fear has on members in her article Psychotherapy and the Fundamentalist Client: The Aims and Challenges of Treating Jehovah’s Witnesses.

“Jehovah’s Witness ideology is dominated by the promotion of all or nothing thinking that dichotomizes the world into polarized opposites to the exclusion of all middle ground. This binary stance prohibits any recognition of nuance, ambiguity, or complexity and likely contributes to some of the problems Jehovah’s Witnesses present with in therapy. In addition, the use of fear tactics and the promotion of hate are prevalent throughout the literature. What makes this even more emotionally hazardous to the recipient of these ideas is that they are presented alongside love—and the barely concealed threat of the loss of that love for the most minor of offenses. This threat is applied to thoughts and feelings, so that questioning the doctrines or acknowledging feelings contrary to them becomes synonymous with the loss of morality, love, family, god’s approval, and eternal life.” (Friedson , M. 2015, pp. 693–712.)

In my indoctrination, not only was I conditioned to view the world as evil, I was also taught to live in fear that if even my innermost thoughts and emotions contradicted the religion I would face excommunication from the community. Having left behind all social support outside of the cult, having been indoctrinated into an entirely new belief set, and given the template that only the cult is good and everyone else is evil, I lived in fear of being “disfellowshipped.” This is the severest form of punishment that a human being can experience, that of complete and total social isolation. I left non-Jehovah’s Witness friends and family behind, and had to face the reality that my “new family” in the cult would strictly shun me as well.

One aspect of Jehovah’s Witness theology that is extremely concerning is not only their disregard for emotional and mental health, but also their claim that it is a sign of “spiritual weakness” if you have any problems at all. “Many Jehovah’s Witnesses view mental health in terms of an individual’s moral composition and prefer that psychological difficulties be addressed through faith-based methods of treatment. They tend to hold the belief that all happiness can be found through Jehovah and that practicing the religion can resolve all problems… As a result of statements like this, many Jehovah’s Witnesses may believe that people who are suffering from psychological distress are not being dedicated enough to their religion.” (Friedson, Meredith. 2015, pp. 693–712.)

This information from my research makes me think of the individualistic approach to problem solving. Individualism is a problem that we face in western society. “That’s a you problem” succinctly summarizes every potential issue that a cult member may experience. If I was depressed or anxious about life, I was labeled as “spiritually weak.” If I had a personal issue with another member, I was labeled as a “troublemaker.” It wasn’t possible that the group that I dedicated my entire life to was a cult; it was always my personal failing.

Recruitment Tactics

I previously mentioned recruitment tactics, but the process bears repeating because cults rely on a continual cycle of indoctrinating new members who will then go out and indoctrinate other members. The steps are as follows:

A person who is undergoing stress, social isolation, or for whatever reason is disillusioned with their circumstances in life, is approached by an active member of the cult and becomes a prospective member.
The cult member brings a message of “hope” and a promise to “answer all of their questions.”
The cult tries to “love bomb” the prospect, showering them with love and attention.
The person is asked to gradually adopt new ways of thinking and acting. They are increasingly required to give up jobs, habits, and even relationships to conform to the cult.
Once a person is sufficiently indoctrinated, they are required to make a huge showing of dedication to the cult. For example, Jehovah’s Witnesses have prospects be “baptized” in front of hundreds if not tens of thousands of people. Failure to make this “dedication” results in being removed from the community.

(Friedson, Meredith. 2015, pp. 693–712.)

Reintegration into Society

Even if a person begins to critically examine the religion and decides to leave, the path to reintegration is long and difficult. Since the cult is often a member’s entire social structure, abandoning this leaves a person with no social support at all. “Since JWs are a high-cost religious group that is theologically, socially, and culturally exclusive, when followers decide to abandon the group they lose any contact with other members of the community, which may cause a dramatic crisis.” (Testoni, Ines, 2019, pp. 687–703.)

Psychologists are beginning to further understand the extreme loss that a former cult member experiences when leaving. They even have begun to liken it to death: “It has long been recognized that loss and its associated grief are important elements of many adverse life events. Some authors assert that with each life change there is a loss because of personal adjustments, defined as ‘psychosocial transitions,’ when they require people to revise their worldviews. Although there is a wide range of literature describing the potential deleterious effects of many forms of grief, little has been written concerning the effects of mourning deriving from the loss of an individual’s social identity caused by the breakdown of relationships in religious communities.” (Testoni, Ines, 2019, pp. 687–703.)

If you decide one day that you no longer wish to be a member of most social groups, you simply stop attending their meetings and life moves on. To leave a cult is quite literally like dying and then having to find a way to “resurrect” the remnants of your identity.

My Experience with Jehovah’s Witnesses

My personal experiences with the cult, as well as the stories of other individuals that I have interacted with, has shown the detrimental effects of cults. It doesn’t just impact the individual, but can have broader implications with the communities that former members reside in.

For example, let’s look at the “community edification work” done by JWs. It’s Saturday morning. You got to sleep in after a long week of work. Jimmy is in the den playing video games, Miranda is playing in the yard, and your significant other is in the kitchen making breakfast. You’re sipping your morning coffee and sitting down to check the news when you hear a knock at your door. You find two sharply dressed young men standing there.

“Good morning, sir! I just wanted to ask you a brief question. Why do you think the world is in such bad condition?” Maybe you decide to indulge the question, and soon find yourself holding a small magazine entitled “The Watchtower.” The young men say a few closing words and bid you adieu. This situation occurs all over the world. It is parodied in skits and comedians poke fun at the crazy missionaries that knock on their doors. However, what you may not realize is that you just took the first step in becoming an indoctrinated member of Jehovah’s Witnesses.

I mention this scenario because one of the options we could have chosen for our final project in this class was to participate in a community participation group. When I was still a member, I participated in JW’s “community service”, a work that I believed was the most important project in existence. The religion refers to this as “the door-to-door preaching work.” They believe that the end of the world is impending, and members are instructed to warn the entire world of the apocalypse. Failure to do so results in the loss of life, both of the people that you failed to warn and even your own.

To the public, Jehovah’s Witnesses declare their community outreach program as being a “public service.” They claim that they teach good family values, that they help people to understand the Bible, and that they help their neighbors wherever possible. At times, they may even offer literacy classes to potentially interested converts of the religion.

At face value, these things may sound like positive contributions to a community, but in reality they do not do what they claim to do. The “preaching work” is merely an attempt at recruiting more members to the religion. Members are instructed to avoid talking to anyone that has clearly expressed a lack of interest in joining the cult. In other words, the value of a person (in the eyes of Jehovah’s Witnesses) starts and ends with their interest level in the religion.

What are the broader implications of the impact this viewpoint can have on a community? I am not exaggerating when I say that there are eight million^[2] people on this planet that are actually waiting for Armageddon to come and destroy 99.99 percent of the world’s population. When I would knock on someone’s door and they jeered at me, I would walk away with my head held high because they were going to see during the apocalypse that I was right and they were wrong.

Conclusion

Why should anyone care about the impact that cults have on society? As I previously stated, the typical view that many people have in regards to cults is that they are rarely found in our communities. We tend to think of the extreme examples, such as Jonestown or Heaven’s Gate. However, as research into the field of cult psychology expands, psychologists are becoming more and more aware of what might classify any group as a “cult” and are noticing that even some of the bigger players in the world of religion fit the criteria. They are noticing the destructive impact that cults have on the health of, not only individuals, but entire communities. Imagine that you wake up on a Saturday morning to a knock on your door by someone saying they want to share a “happy message.” In reality, that person reports back to his group that he failed to convert you and that you will be one of the 99.99% of the world that will die at Armageddon. I need not elaborate on why this would be detrimental to the work of community psychology.

What can we do? Unfortunately there isn’t a clear and easy “fix” to removing cults. Some psychologists even argue that you would create more problems than you would solve trying to “ban” any sort of religious group. One proposed solution is to have more stringent requirements on what qualifies a group to have “charity” status. Knocking on people’s doors to share propaganda hardly qualifies as charity work. What this would do is force groups such as Jehovah’s Witnesses to either expand the community outreach work they do to benefit more people than just themselves or to change how they operate. As the world becomes more and more secular, we will hopefully see huge decreases in the number of adherents to these bigger cults. Perhaps with time the problem will self-correct. Our job as community psychologists is to ensure that the communities to absorb these former members when they leave are as positive of a place to live as possible.

^[1] (Further research by Steven Hassan specifically as applied to the groups that have been mentioned or discussed in this paper:

^[2] https://www.jw.org/en/jehovahs-witnesses/faq/how-many-jw-members/

References

Friedson, Meredith. “Psychotherapy and the Fundamentalist Client: The Aims and Challenges of Treating Jehovah’s Witnesses.” Journal of Religion and Health, vol. 54, no. 2, 2015, pp. 693–712.
Hassan, S. Combating cult and mind control. Wellingborough, GB: Aquarian Press. 2015, pp. 113-124.
Kloos, BV., Hill, J., Thomas, E., Wandersman, A., Elias, M., & Dalton, J. Introducing Community Psychology. In B. Kloos, J. Hill, E. Thomas, A. Wandersmasn, M. Elias & J. Dalton (3rd ed.), Community Psychology: Linking Individuals and Communities. 2012, pp. 12-13.
Moore, Rebecca. “The Stigmatized Deaths in Jonestown: Finding a Locus for Grief.” Death Studies, vol. 35, no. 1. 2011, pp. 42–58.
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Rudkin, J. Community Psychology: Guiding Principles and Orienting Concepts. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc. 2003.
Testoni, Ines, et al. “Self-Appropriation between Social Mourning and Individuation: a Qualitative Study on Psychosocial Transition among Jehovah’s Witnesses.” Pastoral Psychology, vol. 68, no. 6, 2019, pp. 687–703.
Whitsett, Doni, and Stephen Kent. “Cults and Families.” Families in Society, vol. 84, no. 4, 2003, pp. 491–502.